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in skin color and variations in Spanish linguistics
concerning form, meaning, and context, and
• The ethno-history and culture of Latinos should be
a valued variable for all competent multicultural
counselors seeking to understand the differences
of each Latino subgroup or nationality and how
this distinctiveness impacts the sense of individual
and collective identity, (subsequently impacting the
counseling session as well).
Aureliano S. Ruiz (1990) was one of the first Latino theoreti-
cians to postulate an ethnic identity model that identifies the
development, transformation and resolution of ethnic iden-
tity conflicts. As his approach is specific to Latino clients, his
model is based upon four assumptions:
• Social marginality can correlate highly with malad-
justment,
• Both marginality and the pressure to assimilate can
be destructive to an individual,
• Pride in one’s own ethnic identity is conducive to
good mental health, and
• During the acculturation process, pride in one’s
own ethnic identity affords the Hispanic more
freedom to choose.
According to the author, the model’s case histories
are primarily from Chicano, Mexican American, and other
Latino university students. The model presents five stages
(Causal, Cognitive, Consequence,WorkingThrough, and
Successful Resolution) in relationship to ethnic identity con-
flicts, interventions, and resolution.
Time and space does not permit me to fully define,
develop, and illustrate each stage of Ruiz’s model. However,
according to Ruiz, stage 1 (Casual) focuses on experiences
and emotions during ethnic identity conflicts which have
their catalyst in experiences related to racism, ethnocen-
trism, and classism. The individual’s home life can also add
to this distress by parental messages or injunctions about
ethnic identity that ignore, negate, or denigrate their child’s
ethnicity. This leads to a failure to identify with one’s own
ethnic group, rejection from that group, or a marginal ethnic
identity resulting from confusion, uncertainty, or a lack of
familiarity with one’s culture. The presenting problem may
not be related to culture. However, the ethnic identity piece
may be a salient issue that contributes negatively to the over-
all well-being of the individual. During the first meeting, it
would be helpful to explore this dynamic.
Consider Delgado-Romero’s (2001) approach to the
“Casual” stage in counseling a Latino client:
In my first meeting with Mr. X, I will conduct an
assessment of his racial and ethnic identity devel-
opment as part of a clinical interview. My main
concern at this point will be to form the therapeutic
alliance.What questions do I ask? I do not have a set
list of questions that I ask. Instead, the models of
ethnic and racial identity development, clinical intu-
ition, and the client’s response guide me. (p. 212)
Closing Comments
The color line remains one of the most volatile topics facing
the nation. True peace, harmony, and righteous fellowship
(that lasts) will only come when all people groups accept
Christ’s redemptive gift and His formula for all peoples to
get along. In the interim, let us all work towards this end.
Fabio E. Freyre, ., D.Min., is
an Associate Professor of Psychology at
Liberty University. Prior to teaching at
Liberty, he worked for many years in Social
Services. He teaches courses in Psychol-
ogy, Sociology, and FACS. He is highly
involved in the Latino ministry in Lynchburg,VA.
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The presenting problem may not be related to culture. However, the ethnic identity piece may
be a salient issue that contributes negatively to the overall well-being of the individual.